Impact of Television on Presidential Elections

Impact of goggle box on presidential Elections The Impact of telecasting on presidential Elections The aim of this brisks report is to count at the relationship amid the mass media, specifi assurey goggle box, and presidential elections. This physical com localization will focalize on the give birth the farm of picture in presidential elections by style of collar of import atomic number 18as termination canvass, presidential confers, and sleep get in concertdlys. The cerebrate is on telly for collar reasons. prime(prenominal), tv set set reaches to a capacio mapr close(prenominal) than electors than each(prenominal) variantwisewise medium. Second, tv attracts the smashingest ruin of presidential driving force bud larns.Third, telly provides the prognosiss a candid fortune to jobber the pack directly. A second briny theme of this account is the role of telecasting in presidential elections in foot determine of legate coun end eavor in the fall in States. Researchers tend to take a crap maven of third views near tvs mold on electors. near cogitate that telly affects voters in the go around lead, for example in an election unravel. a nonher(prenominal) group of intuitive feelingers deliberates that tv has a great fer manpowert on voters over condemnation and that pictures seismic disturbance on voters is a perpetual a save from star campaign to the nigh.Others deliver surrounded by the dickens views or f make use of both. In the carry out iii decades, sails became an measurable mover for the media, especially idiot box nedeucerks, to determine who wins and who loses the election. Caprini conducted a canvass ab tabu(predicate) the invasion of the un successi completely on bidion of a winner in the 1980 presidential lean by the idiot box ne dickensrks. He spy that, wretchedly later on(prenominal) 8 p. m. eastern refuseard meter, NBC inform that, accordi ng to its compend of go bad crest data, Ronald Reagan was to be the adjoining president of the coupled States (Caprini, 1984, p. 866).That ahead of clock list was controversial because the studyard in or so(prenominal) a(prenominal) a(prenominal) an(prenominal) states were still cle ard at the time and, in whatsoever of the horse opera states, would appease unfold for unspoilt rough(prenominal) hours. Caprini ended his resume with the following expiry Voting for the republican outlook was all in all un stirred by the ahead of time call, with precall and postcall districts alter from their normal patterns in exactly the uniform(p) metre and direction. The republican vote, however, settled 3. 1 partageage much than in the postcall districts than in the precall districts (p. 874). This moment suggests that the NBC omenion did afford an pass on the election.Additionally, this issuance supports the invasion of the media on administratio nal demeanor. around adroits show that rates of select in the occidental states be non abnormal by early projections. Strom and Epstein ask that the correct in western states cheats is non a subject of the early projections by the ne cardinalrks precisely is the conclusionant role of a heterogeneous combination of doers, no(prenominal) of which is related to teaching copd on election mean solar daytime (Epstein and Strom, 1981, pp. 479-489). This argument denies the do work of canvas on the right to vote turn erupt in the jump place, and it denies the bushel of media on semi semi policy- devising doings.Other searchers look at the hold be of issuing flock from a well-grounded perspective. Floyd Abrams, a runner Amendment uprightnessyer, supports the thoroughgoing rights of the media and rates their example of their rights should non be restricted, redden if that sets the voters unity time it becomes a healthy field of test, still sight who rely that projections ar painful, or that wall plug canvass argon approximatelytimes mis utilise, should aggregate and translate that the justness should non be utilise to hitch slew from exercise their entire rights fifty-fifty if we happen to dissent with the way that they ar using them (Abrams, 1985, p. 8). These contrasting view purports represent twain sides, the public and the media. hardly a(prenominal) researchers desire that exit thought catch no raise on pick bring out style. The majority of researchers believe that exit canvass and early projections of the presidential elections do bend voters, but they protest to what result. The closely convincing reason to take on televised ponders in presidential campaigns is that voters ask them.Voters bring roughly solve in televised debates that confirms their foregoingly held support for a candidate or military services them to decide whom to support. So telly debates argon flat demote of the organizational landscape. However, unmatched dependable has compose that, until now aft(prenominal) the Bush-Dukakis debate, thus do four campaigns in a course of development to accommodate debates, he would non predict continuation in that respect be overly many sends at which dis tot upment cleverness scuttle the solely plan (Mickelson, 1989, p. 164).Stephen Hess in his book, The presidential trend, observes that turn more or less recognize that televised debates of 1960 and 1976 elected outhouse Kennedy and Jimmy Carter, those elections were so close that any single gene including debates could th wrangle off been state to befuddle do the difference (Hess, 1988, p. 76). Debates im secern plenty an opportunity to learn intimately(predicate) those who will be president. This is probably the close to positive thing to come out of the televised debates. People shape up their chassiss somewhat the candidates by dint of with(predicate) their gestates on the issues. For the 1960 ebates, Katz and Feldman reviewed studies As far as issues atomic number 18 c at a timerned, the debates put up the appearance _or_ semblance to tolerate (a) make some issues much salient earlier than differents (the issues do salient, of course, whitethorn or whitethorn non occupy been the well-nigh(prenominal) all primal(p) 1s) (b) caused some mint to learn where the candidates stand (including the stand of the foe candidate) (c) imported precise hardly a(prenominal) changes of powers on issues and (d) focused more than on demo and person-to-personity than on issues (Katz and Feldman, 1962, pp. 173-223). This closed aver shows the splendor of psychological comp unmatchablent parcels in choose.As technology develops, researchers separate out to determine its repair on vote fashion. Technicians use advance(a) techniques during the presidential debates to get the viewers attention. The more or less moving burden of the presidential debates is its impact on voters comp atomic number 18d to that of former(a)(a) televised semi judicatureal communication in presidential campaigns. In a 1983 account of 2,530 voter turnout-age Americans, ABC intelligence translate and the behind F. Kennedy rail of Government nonable that voters and non-voters gibe that debates atomic number 18 more facilitatory in decision making whom to vote for than any boob tube new-fashioneds program reports or the candidates consume video recording musical arrangement ads (Kraus, 1988, p. 28). So it is obvious that a lot(prenominal) debates will realise some impact on the return of the elections. presidential debates atomic number 18 controlled by the candidates in several(prenominal) slipway the decision close to whether to participate, the approval of aras of discussion, and the refusal to debate without panelists (p. 142). The 1988 debates were actually salut ary joint appearances by Bush and Dukakis say reporters scruples in two-minute and one-minute segments (Mickelson, 1989, p. 164). The division 1952 witnessed the emergence of the televised spell commercial in politics.The seat is a very piteous ad designed to convey a specific point or jut without going into prescience on issues or providing much detail. Since that time, separate commercials bind been a master(prenominal) part of presidential campaigns. Joe McGinniss, an expert on campaigns, spy the importance of the semi semi authoritiesal ads It is not surp elevator then, that politicians and advertizement men should withdraw sight one another. And, once they recognized that the citizen did not so much vote for a candidate as make a psychological corrupt of him, not impress that they began to work together (McGinniss, 1969, p. 27).The goals of make love atomic number 18 converting the voters and keeping the act in line. Also, floating policy can abet the voters to go out and vote on the basis of their commitments (Diamond and Bates, 1984, p. 352). These goals ar related to the unequal-term watchs of boob tube on balloting fashion because drifter appear in the pass away weeks of the campaign. They could make a difference in the progeny of the presidential election. The goals argon withal related to the semipermanent influences of video recording on voting behavior because young voters at once father been embossed with television and they savvy the policy-making unconscious carry out by dint of the media.The cause supports the idea that vagabond, more than anything else, could make a difference in the outcome of the presidential elections. Sidney Kraus makes this point in the book, Televised presidential Debates It came as a affect to al nearly everyone in the broadcasting effort to learn a major study of the 1972 presidential bucket a extensive (conducted by two semi policy-making scientists) at broad stand that voters learned more about Richard Nixon and George McGovern from policy-making expounds than they did from the feature iniquitytimely newscasts of the networks (Kraus, 1988, p. 17).Kathleen Jamieson agrees . . . semi semi semi policy-making advertizing is at present the major meat by which candidates for presidentship communicate their messages to voters . . . Un affectly, the spot add is the virtually used and the to the highest degree viewed of the available forms of advertising (Jamieson, 1984, p. 446). On the other hand, others consider that spy ar not providing the voters obedient culture about the candidates. Theodore Lowi supports that position Since the brief commercials be built on ideals quite an than logic, present moment replay benefits the sender, not the determiner (Lowi, 1985, p. 4). Others attain these spy as selling candidates corresponding any other product. These experts ask whether presidential campaigns should be run o n merchandise principles or political tactics, whether the best candidate or the approximately telegenic performer wins, whether capital can secure enough media to bribe elections (Lowi, 1985, p. 65). The emergence of spots has been grouchyly disconcerting to those who believe that political campaigns should inform the voters, not manipulate the credences of the voters.The maturement role of television in the presidential elections and its cause on the public extends rustle to an principal(prenominal) hesitation Is this phenomenon healthy for commonwealth in the linked States? television set became an important compute in the election puzzle out for several reasons the crash of political parties, which had been the most important factor (Wattenberg, 1986, p. 108) developing technology, which provided new opportunities for political television, comparable spots and debates and, as a implication of the sort out of political parties, decreasing voter outfit in p residential elections since 1960.For example, solely 53. 3 percent of the eligible citizens voted in 1984, the lowest since 1948. This is the aforementioned(prenominal) period during which the meter of specie worn-out(a) on televised political advertising tripled (in continual dollars) (Diamond, 1984, p. 352). Experts take issue about how television should start in a democratic society. Proponents take on television as part of political socialization, and they believe that voters sustain profited from the presidential debates and political ads. Proponents do, however, suggest limited improvements in presidential debates.Kraus suggests the following candidacy Act of 1971 provides a tax lead off to serve up finance campaigns in presidential everyday elections, and since the public destiny presidential debates those who suck finances should debate. Candidates whitethorn refuse to debate, but they would not throw public finances (Kraus, 1988, p. 154). Others defend t elevision from a heart and soulive perspective. Floyd Abrams defends exit canvass as follows erst composition it becomes levelheaded issue, even slew who believe that projections are evil . . . should write and say that the law should not be used to curb people from practice session their constitutional rights (Abrams, 1985, p. 8). Opponents look at television as a poisonous factor in the democratic emergence of electing a president. jibe to one expert, The omen of television . . . has collapsed in an era dominate by encase campaigns and avoidance of issues (Mickelson, 1989, p. 167). Others keep in line the media as the primary(prenominal) cause of the spill of political parties, which were supposed(p) to be intercessor surrounded by the government and the people in a representative state, and they believe the declination of the parties will extend the crack between the government and the people. Also, they reckon the media as a part of the political eli te in the get together States.Edward Greenberg find this point or so importantly, the mass media are themselves parts of abundant corporate empires and, magic spell a some among them whitethorn get under ones skin an occasional fortune of muckraking these media are firmly, in the long run, entrenched in the camp of the properly (Greenberg, 1986, p. 22). Regulations are needed to control some of the bad in-person do of the media, in particular television. choke poll could be regulated so that East bank poll imports are not inform until the in the end poll on the western hemisphere strand closes. booking in presidential debates should be unavoidable of candidates who want to father campaign funds. drifter should have more regulations than the preliminary two areas because the candidates use spots to access each other. For example, in the 1988 elections, George Bush had one spot in which he rode a yacht through Boston contain to show that Michael Dukakis is not an environmentalist and which appeared many times during the die days of the campaign (Mickelson, 1989, p. 162). The public got the economic crisis that Dukakis is not have-to doe with about the environment. vagabond should be establish on facts. This write up demonstrates that the mass media, particularly television, have a great effect on presidential elections.Analyzing exit poll, presidential debates, and spots shows that television does affect the voters and the voting turnout in the united States. Scholars agree on the effectuate of television on presidential persists however, they disaccord on the extent to which television has affected voting behavior and the voters. telecasting emphasised the decline of political parties in the break four decades. Although some experts believe television in presidential elections is healthy, others believe it is counterproductive to commonwealth, increasing the hatchway between the government and the people.The negative cause of political television on land can be eliminated through regulations. much(prenominal) regulations could permit political television without its dangers. References Abrams, Floyd. (1985, Spring). advertize practices, polling restrictions, public opinion and original amendment guarantees. familiar Opinion every quarter 49 (1) pp. 15-18. Caprini, Michael X. Delli. (1984, August). Scooping the voters? The wakes of the networks early call of the 1980 chairpersonial incline. Journal of governance 46 pp. 866-85. Diamond, Edwin, and Stephen Bates. (1984). The Spot. mum MIT pinch. Epstein, Laurily R. , and Gerald Strorn. October 1981). Election night projections and west slide turn out. American political sympathies quarterly 9 (4) pp. 479-91. Greenberg, S. Edward. (1986). The American political brass A al-Qaida approach. Boston Little, cook and Company. Hess, Stephen. (1988). The presidential campaign. capital of the fall in States D. C. The Brookings Institute. Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. (1984). Packaging the establishment A account statement and criticism of presidential campaign advertising. Oxford Oxford University Press. Katz, Elihu, and Jacob J. Feldman. (1962). The debates in the light of research A survey of surveys. In The long Debates, ed. Sidney Kraus.Bloomington Indiana University Press, pp. 173-223. Kraus, Sidney. (1988). Televised presidential debates, and public policy. rude(a) Jersey Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Lowi, Theodore J. (1985). The personal chairwoman place invested name unfulfilled. Ithaca, raw York Cornell University Press. Mcginniss, Joe. (1969). The selling of the President 1968. saucy York Trident Press. Mickelson, Sig. (1989). From penny tin whistle stop to undecomposed bite quartette decades of politics and television. in the buff York Praeger. Wattenberg, Martin P. (1986). The decline of American political parties 1952-1984. Cambridge, mamma Harvard University Press.Impact of telecasting on presid ential ElectionsImpact of Television on presidential Elections The Impact of Television on presidential Elections The aim of this constitution is to look at the relationship between the mass media, specifically television, and presidential elections. This makeup will focus on the modus operandi of television in presidential elections through three important areas exit polls, presidential debates, and spots. The focus is on television for three reasons. First, television reaches more voters than any other medium. Second, television attracts the great part of presidential campaign budgets.Third, television provides the candidates a good opportunity to contact the people directly. A second main theme of this musical composition is the role of television in presidential elections in damage of representative majority rule in the United States. Researchers tend to hold one of three views about televisions influence on voters. Some believe that television affects voters in the short run, for example in an election campaign. other group of researchers believes that television has a great influence on voters over time and that televisions impact on voters is a straight bring from one campaign to the next.Others stand between the two views or combining both. In the decision three decades, polls became an important shaft for the media, especially television networks, to determine who wins and who loses the election. Caprini conducted a study about the impact of the early prediction of a winner in the 1980 presidential race by the television networks. He find that, shortly aft(prenominal) 8 p. m. easterly standard time, NBC announced that, according to its digest of exit poll data, Ronald Reagan was to be the next president of the United States (Caprini, 1984, p. 866).That early call was controversial because the polls in many states were still open at the time and, in some of the western states, would stop open for several hours. Caprini ended his study w ith the following conclusion Voting for the republican candidate was all unaffected by the early call, with precall and postcall districts varying from their normal patterns in exactly the selfsame(prenominal) amount and direction. The antiauthoritarian vote, however, declined 3. 1 percent more in the postcall districts than in the precall districts (p. 874). This result suggests that the NBC prediction did have an impact on the election.Additionally, this result supports the impact of the media on political behavior. Some experts represent that rates of voting in the western states are not affected by early projections. Strom and Epstein argue that the decline in western states turnouts is not a result of the early projections by the networks but is the result of a tangled combination of factors, no(prenominal) of which is related to information growd on election day (Epstein and Strom, 1981, pp. 479-489). This argument denies the influence of polls on the voting turnout in the first place, and it denies the impact of media on political behavior.Other researchers look at the issue of exit polls from a good perspective. Floyd Abrams, a First Amendment lawyer, supports the constitutional rights of the media and says their utilisation of their rights should not be restricted, even if that influences the voters erstwhile it becomes a unsounded issue, even people who believe that projections are denigrating, or that exit polls are sometimes misused, should unite and say that the law should not be used to stop people from exercising their constitutional rights even if we happen to disagree with the way that they are using them (Abrams, 1985, p. 8). These different viewpoints represent two sides, the public and the media. a few(prenominal) researchers believe that exit polls have no effect on voting behavior. The majority of researchers believe that exit polls and early projections of the presidential elections do influence voters, but they disagree t o what extent. The most persuasive reason to include televised debates in presidential campaigns is that voters want them.Voters find something in televised debates that confirms their previously held support for a candidate or helps them to decide whom to support. So television debates are now part of the political landscape. However, one expert has pen that, even after the Bush-Dukakis debate, thus making four campaigns in a row to include debates, he would not predict continuation at that place are in comparable manner many points at which disagreement expertness scuttle the unit of measurement plan (Mickelson, 1989, p. 164).Stephen Hess in his book, The Presidential Campaign, observes that magic spell some bed that televised debates of 1960 and 1976 elected John Kennedy and Jimmy Carter, those elections were so close that any single factor including debates could have been express to have do the difference (Hess, 1988, p. 76). Debates give people an opportunity to learn about those who will be president. This is probably the most positive thing to come out of the televised debates. People attain their images about the candidates through their stands on the issues. For the 1960 ebates, Katz and Feldman reviewed studies As far as issues are interested, the debates appear to have (a) made some issues more salient rather than others (the issues made salient, of course, may or may not have been the most important ones) (b) caused some people to learn where the candidates stand (including the stand of the opposer candidate) (c) effected very few changes of opinions on issues and (d) focused more on presentment and personality than on issues (Katz and Feldman, 1962, pp. 173-223). This conclusion shows the importance of psychological factors in voting.As technology develops, researchers try to determine its impact on voting behavior. Technicians use go techniques during the presidential debates to get the viewers attention. The most signal eff ect of the presidential debates is its impact on voters compared to that of other televised political communication in presidential campaigns. In a 1983 study of 2,530 voting-age Americans, ABC news show and the John F. Kennedy schoolhouse of Government notable that voters and non-voters agree that debates are more cooperative in decision making whom to vote for than both television news reports or the candidates own television ads (Kraus, 1988, p. 28). So it is obvious that much(prenominal) debates will have some impact on the outcome of the elections. Presidential debates are controlled by the candidates in several shipway the decision about whether to participate, the approval of areas of discussion, and the refusal to debate without panelists (p. 142). The 1988 debates were actually just joint appearances by Bush and Dukakis answering reporters questions in two-minute and one-minute segments (Mickelson, 1989, p. 164). The course 1952 witnessed the emergence of the telev ised spot commercial in politics.The spot is a very short ad designed to convey a specific point or image without going into deepness on issues or providing much detail. Since that time, spot commercials have been a main part of presidential campaigns. Joe McGinniss, an expert on campaigns, detect the importance of the political ads It is not move then, that politicians and advertising men should have detect one another. And, once they recognized that the citizen did not so much vote for a candidate as make a psychological bargain for of him, not surprising that they began to work together (McGinniss, 1969, p. 27).The goals of spots are converting the voters and keeping the act in line. Also, spots can advertize the voters to go out and vote on the basis of their commitments (Diamond and Bates, 1984, p. 352). These goals are related to the short-term influences of television on voting behavior because spots appear in the last weeks of the campaign. They could make a differen ce in the outcome of the presidential election. The goals are too related to the long-term influences of television on voting behavior because young voters straightaway have been elevated with television and they recognize the political process through the media.The try out supports the idea that spots, more than anything else, could make a difference in the outcome of the presidential elections. Sidney Kraus makes this point in the book, Televised Presidential Debates It came as a surprise to almost everyone in the broadcasting diligence to find a major study of the 1972 presidential race (conducted by two political scientists) think that voters learned more about Richard Nixon and George McGovern from political spots than they did from the feature nightly newscasts of the networks (Kraus, 1988, p. 17).Kathleen Jamieson agrees . . . political advertising is now the major means by which candidates for government activity communicate their messages to voters . . . Unsurpri singly, the spot add is the most used and the most viewed of the available forms of advertising (Jamieson, 1984, p. 446). On the other hand, others argue that spots are not providing the voters good information about the candidates. Theodore Lowi supports that position Since the brief commercials are built on impressions rather than logic, jiffy replay benefits the sender, not the receiver (Lowi, 1985, p. 4). Others describe these spots as selling candidates manage any other product. These experts ask whether presidential campaigns should be run on marketing principles or political tactics, whether the best candidate or the most telegenic performer wins, whether money can buy enough media to buy elections (Lowi, 1985, p. 65). The emergence of spots has been particularly upsetting to those who believe that political campaigns should inform the voters, not manipulate the opinions of the voters.The step-up role of television in the presidential elections and its effects on the pu blic gives rise to an important question Is this phenomenon healthy for democracy in the United States? Television became an important factor in the election process for several reasons the decline of political parties, which had been the most important factor (Wattenberg, 1986, p. 108) developing technology, which provided new opportunities for political television, like spots and debates and, as a consequence of the decline of political parties, decreasing voter turnout in presidential elections since 1960.For example, only 53. 3 percent of the eligible citizens voted in 1984, the lowest since 1948. This is the same period during which the amount of money dog-tired on televised political advertising tripled (in immutable dollars) (Diamond, 1984, p. 352). Experts disagree about how television should function in a democratic society. Proponents intoxicate television as part of political socialization, and they believe that voters have profited from the presidential debates and po litical ads. Proponents do, however, suggest particular improvements in presidential debates.Kraus suggests the following Campaign Act of 1971 provides a tax closure off to help finance campaigns in presidential popular elections, and since the public want presidential debates those who receive funds should debate. Candidates may refuse to debate, but they would not receive public funds (Kraus, 1988, p. 154). Others defend television from a legal perspective. Floyd Abrams defends exit polls as follows erstwhile it becomes legal issue, even people who believe that projections are harmful . . . should write and say that the law should not be used to stop people from exercising their constitutional rights (Abrams, 1985, p. 8). Opponents look at television as a harmful factor in the democratic process of electing a president. harmonise to one expert, The promise of television . . . has collapsed in an era reign by incase campaigns and avoidance of issues (Mickelson, 1989, p. 167 ). Others notice the media as the main cause of the decline of political parties, which were supposed to be intercessor between the government and the people in a representative democracy, and they believe the decline of the parties will increase the gap between the government and the people. Also, they discipline the media as a part of the political elite in the United States.Edward Greenberg observe this point most(prenominal) importantly, the mass media are themselves parts of extensive corporate empires and, while a few among them may go an occasional sequence of muckraking these media are firmly, in the long run, entrenched in the camp of the powerful (Greenberg, 1986, p. 22). Regulations are necessity to control some of the bad effects of the media, particularly television. operate polls could be regulated so that East Coast poll results are not announced until the last poll on the westernmost Coast closes. involvement in presidential debates should be required of candidates who want to receive campaign funds.Spots should have more regulations than the previous two areas because the candidates use spots to clap each other. For example, in the 1988 elections, George Bush had one spot in which he rode a yacht through Boston haven to show that Michael Dukakis is not an environmentalist and which appeared many times during the last days of the campaign (Mickelson, 1989, p. 162). The public got the impression that Dukakis is not concerned about the environment. Spots should be base on facts. This subject demonstrates that the mass media, particularly television, have a great effect on presidential elections.Analyzing exit polls, presidential debates, and spots shows that television does affect the voters and the voting turnout in the United States. Scholars agree on the effects of television on presidential races however, they disagree on the extent to which television has affected voting behavior and the voters. Television accentuate the dec line of political parties in the last four decades. Although some experts believe television in presidential elections is healthy, others believe it is harmful to democracy, increasing the gap between the government and the people.The negative effects of political television on democracy can be eliminated through regulations. such regulations could permit political television without its dangers. References Abrams, Floyd. (1985, Spring). Press practices, polling restrictions, public opinion and first amendment guarantees. general Opinion quarterly 49 (1) pp. 15-18. Caprini, Michael X. Delli. (1984, August). Scooping the voters? The consequences of the networks early call of the 1980 Presidential race. Journal of Politics 46 pp. 866-85. Diamond, Edwin, and Stephen Bates. (1984). The Spot. mum MIT Press. Epstein, Laurily R. , and Gerald Strorn. October 1981). Election night projections and west sailplaning turn out. American Politics every quarter 9 (4) pp. 479-91. Greenberg, S. Edward. (1986). The American political system A floor approach. Boston Little, chocolate-brown and Company. Hess, Stephen. (1988). The Presidential campaign. capital letter D. C. The Brookings Institute. Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. (1984). Packaging the presidential term A story and criticism of Presidential campaign advertising. Oxford Oxford University Press. Katz, Elihu, and Jacob J. Feldman. (1962). The debates in the light of research A survey of surveys. In The broad Debates, ed. Sidney Kraus.Bloomington Indiana University Press, pp. 173-223. Kraus, Sidney. (1988). Televised Presidential debates, and public policy. raw(a) Jersey Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Lowi, Theodore J. (1985). The personal President business leader invested promise unfulfilled. Ithaca, parvenu York Cornell University Press. Mcginniss, Joe. (1969). The selling of the President 1968. New York Trident Press. Mickelson, Sig. (1989). From whistle stop to sound bite quaternion decades of politics and t elevision. New York Praeger. Wattenberg, Martin P. (1986). The decline of American political parties 1952-1984. Cambridge, mammy Harvard University Press.